Theory and Late Adulthood

Late adulthood is characterized by Erik Erikson as being the eighth life stage – old age – and is designated the crisis of integrity versus despair (Ashford & LeCroy, 2010).  There are many varied theories of aging that attempt to explain elderly adults’ behaviors and emotions.  Continuity theory, developed by Robert Atchley, supposes that by making adaptive choices old-aged adults are trying to save and maintain existing feelings, attitudes, and beliefs by applying familiar knowledge, skills, and coping strategies (Atchley, 1993).  Implications for social work practice can include being aware of an elderly client’s need to do or say things in a certain manner.  Too much change at this stage in life can cause an old-age adult to become confused or disoriented, and can actually make him or her more resistant to making small changes in their everyday routine or environment (Ashford et al, 2010).    

Another well-known aging theory is Robert Havighurst’s activity theory, which focuses more on change than continuity (Ashford et al, 2010).  Activity theory postulates that older adults enjoy a more positive life experience when they are more active in their various social roles (Gutierrez, Daniels, & Sannino, 2009).  This theory encourages elderly adults to adapt their behaviors to fit new roles when old roles are phased out because of physical or mental old-age impairments (Ashford et al, 2010).  It is important that the social worker explore social roles with the elderly client, and that the client is encouraged and aided in finding activities that are compatible with the client’s current living environment.  If a client is isolated, the social worker should assist the client with locating a source for group activities that enable the client to feel purposeful and validated (Gutierrez et al, 2009).

Ashford, J.B., & LeCroy, C.W. (2010, 2008). Human behavior in the social environment:  A multidimensional perspective (4th ed.) Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning.

Atchley, R. C. (1993). Continuity theory and the evolution of activity in later adulthood. In J. R. Kelly (Ed.), Activity and aging: Staying involved in later life (pp. 5-16). Thousand Oaks, CA, US: Sage Publications, Inc.

Gutierrez, K. D., Daniels, H., & Sannino, A. (2009). Learning and Expanding with Activity Theory. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Theory and the Infancy Stage

            According to Erikson’s psychosocial development theory, the infancy stage is the time that humans face the initial crisis of trust versus mistrust (Ashford & LeCroy, 2010).  One of the main ways that this trust is established is through forming relationship attachments.  Attachment theory is most closely associated with John Bowlby, a psychiatrist (Ashford et al, 2010).  If an infant presents with colic (prolonged bouts of incessant crying) or damage from birth defects like those associated with Fetal Alcohol Syndrome, it can be difficult for the caregiver to form a bond or attachment.  Sometimes, the caregiver fails to form an attachment for environmental reasons, like drug or alcohol abuse or depression.  There are many reasons why the caregiver and infant bond might not be established, but research shows that the results are always negative.  There are several signs that a social worker should be aware of when assessing an infant for attachment issues:  (a) lack of comfort seeking behavior, (b) failure to reestablish interaction after separation, and (c) lack of warm and affectionate exchanges with caregivers (Ashford et al, 2010). 

            Jean Piaget’s theories of cognitive development form the classical basis for all new research on the developmental processes of the infant mind; this includes information processing, sensorimotor development, and the ability to make judgments of right or wrong (Ashford et al, 2010).  Sensorimotor development is now thought to be much further along than Piaget originally believed.  Piaget originally stated that infants learn to transfer sensory information from sense-to-sense gradually, however, current research shows that this ability may exist in infants from a very young age (Ashford et al, 2010).  Other research has indicated that infants have better memory than previously believed, and that they seem to possess “. . . an innate sense of how the world works,” regarding subjects like simple physics and object permanence (Ashford & LeCroy, p. 248, 2010).  Social workers can utilize many resources when assessing cognitive behavior.  There are a wide range of tests available to check the developmental level of infants, including IQ tests, speech evaluations, and physical/reflexive aptitude assessments (Ashford et al, 2010).

Ashford, J.B., & LeCroy, C.W. (2010, 2008). Human behavior in the social environment:  A multidimensional perspective (4th ed.) Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning.