Late Adulthood

                             Some Theories in late Adulthood

Basically two theories that will be analyzed in this paper are the Continuity Theory and the Disengagement Theory. Both theories are interwoven in the sense that, they both describe how people develop in late adulthood. Also, these two theories describe how the aging adjust and adapt with the changes in old age.

            The Continuity Theory holds that, in making adaptive choices, middle-aged and older adults attempt to preserve and maintain existing internal and external structures; and they prefer to accomplish this objective by using strategies tied to their past experiences of themselves and their social world. In another word, this theory maintains that one must keep the same habits that one had in the past in order to have a healthy and dignified aging process. Some of these habits include how one eats, type of lifestyle pursued and even social relationships. Furthermore, Continuity theory has been used in understanding adjustment to retirement as well as work ability, with the aging.  This perspective is important in light of the recent development in workforce participation of older employees and the trend toward early exit from working life. Overall the theory stipulates that individuals who are aging successfully continue habits, preferences, lifestyle, and relationships through midlife and later.

Another theory that is closely related to the Continuity theory is the Disengagement theory. The main premise of disengagement is that there is a loss of roles and energy due to age that makes people to long to be dismissed from their social expectations of productivity and competitiveness. Disengagement is an adaptive behavior that allows for the maintenance of a sense of worth and tranquility while performing peripheral social roles. This theory also explains an orderly way of transferring power from one generation to the next. The disengagement process is mutual and has positive consequences for both society and the individual. The belief is that social services should not empower the older adult but assist and encourage their withdrawal from society.

Both Theories seek to explain how people adjust and cope with the development of old age. However, Continuity theory is more appealing, since it maintains that the old can continue with a healthy lifestyle in order to cope with the aging process. On the other hand Disengagement theory states that people will withdraw from their community and be closer only to their significant family members. Eventually this might lead to some degree of isolation and loneliness.

References

 Ashford, J., & LeCroy, C. (2013). Infancy. In Human behavior in the social environment: A multidimensional perspective (5th ed., p. 599-600).

 Belmont, CA: Jon-David Hague. Kowalczyk, K. (n.d.). Psychosocial Theories of Aging: Activity Theory, Continuity Theory & Disengagement Theory. Retrieved April 13, 2015, from http://study.com/academy/lesson/psychosocial-theories-of-aging-activity-theory-continuity-theory-disengagement-theory.html

Ch 12 Late Adulthood

Chapter 12 Late Adulthood

Late adulthood is the last stage of life before death. During this stage individuals social behaviors as well as cognitive behavior change. The authors discuss the many changes as well as the implications for social work. There are many theories that  place effort in trying to explain the different behaviors of the elderly.

Late adulthood is classified as the years from 60 until death. “Erik Erikson termed this eighth life stage as “old age”, characterized by the developmental task of integrity versus despair” (Ashford & Lecroy, 2013). Erikson’s theory states that people generally reflect on life experiences as they get older. The theory also suggests that people find a sense of integrity  while reflecting on their past experiences and excepting their life. In some instances some people may reflect and realize that they aren’t pleased with their life’s outcome. This is when despair comes into play.

Another renowned theory is the Continuity Theory by Robert Atchley. This theory emphasizes that people change less with aging than they stay the same (Ahsford & Lecroy, 2013). The theory is based off a study that found relative constancy of personality traits from young adulthood to old age. This theory would imply that the person’s “true self” would remain the same even through life events and growth. The core charesterics of the person would remain. Atchley’s theory states that changes that occur with age is done using familiar strategies from the individuals past (Ashford & Lecroy, 2013). Atchley suggests “Because of continuity, human development in later life is subtle”.  

Ashford, J. B., Lecroy, C. W. (2013) Human Behavior in the Social Environment. Belmont, CA: Cengage

Chapter 12- Late Adulthood

In this blog the learner will understand the meaning of two theories that bring changes to the social life of late adulthood. The two theories of aging, Socioemotional selectivity (Carstensen, 1992) and Gerotransendence (Tornstam, 2000).

Socioemotional selectivity asserts that familiar and reliable relationships become more important as older adults regulate emotions and conserve energy by selecting with whom and how to invest their emotional energies. As an individual ages, he/she becomes more selective about how they spend their resources such as time and money. Sources use will be on items that have more emotional importance like family time, traveling.

Gerotransendence Theory argues that optimal aging has a contemplative, spiritual component that allows the older adult to transcend concerns about the deteriorating physical body or materialism of everyday life and instead focus on concerns about connectedness with others and the spiritual realm.
The individual may experienced a decreased interest in material things and a greater need for solitary "meditation". Positive solitude becomes more important. Their spiritual life becomes more focus.

Both of these theories acknowledge the importance of changes in older adult's needs for solitude, choice, and meaningful relationships.





Ashford, J. B., & LeCroy, C. W., (2010). Human behavior in the social environment: A multidimensional perspective. 4th. Cengage Learning. Belmont, CA

Blog 2: Late Adulthood

In chapter 12 the learner learns about late adulthood. The chapter talks about different theories of late adult hood and all the difference aspects of late adulthood. In this blog, the learner will learn about two different theories. One theory being Erik Erikson's "old age" theory and then Activity Theory (havighurst, 1961).
Erik Erikson theory of old age is his eighth and final stage in life. In this stage, he named it the integrity vs. despair stage. He says this stage is for adults ages 60 until death. Erikson says "integrity refers to the ability to integrate or satisfactorily blend one's history and experience with the task of evaluating and accepting one's life" (Ashford & Lecroy, 2013). Erikson had discovered that the older people got, the more they would reflect back and see how meaningful their life was. This mean they then would feel satisfied and then develop integrity.
The next theory that the learner will look at is the Activity Theory. This theory is more focused on change than continuity and "applies social role theory to late life" ( Ashford & Lecroy, 2013). "This theory is simply that older people experience greater subjective well being when they continue to be active in many roles" ( Ashford & Lecroy, 2013). Activity Theory shows that being successful in aging can depend on adapting or substitution for roles that may not longer be available.

References:

Ashford, J., & Lecroy, C. (2013). Human behavior in the social environment: A multimensional perspective (5th Ed.). Australia: Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning.

Theoretical Blog - Late Adulthood

Theoretical Blog - Late Adulthood

There are many different theories in late adulthood.  Some theorists think that late adulthood should be broken up into two stages:  late adulthood (ages 60 to 75) and old age (75 until death) because one stage is not enough to encompass the span of life from 60 until death.  (Ashford, 2013).  There are many different theories but there are still some characteristics shared of individuals within this stage of late adulthood.  Some of the characteristics are:  concern with leaving a legacy; change in the sense of time; desire to share the wealth of accumulated knowledge, experience, and wisdom with the young; attachment with familiar objects, creativity, curiosity and surprise.  (Ashford, 2013, p. 601).  There are different characteristics but according to the continuity theory, the changes in the late adulthood stage are very subtle.  This theory suggests that older adults maintain many of the same activities, behaviors, and relationships in which they have had lifetime involvement.  This could include habits that an individual has had, or places he or she has been going to for a long period of time.  In this theory, one's behavior becomes more predictable and is proven by looking at someone's life experiences, their relationships, their habits, and their behaviors from earlier adulthood.  For example, if a person has been going to the same church, social group, or civic club for many years, then it is probable that they will continue to participate in these activities in late adulthood.

Another theory in late adulthood is the activity theory.  This theory focuses more on change rather than continuity.  It states that if an individual stays active and participates in many different roles in late adulthood, his or her overall well-being will be better for the remainder of his or her life.  (Ashford, 2013).  According to this theory, getting or staying involved with meaningful activities in late adulthood can contribute to a healthier, longer life.  A commonly accepted example is that people who have personal, meaningful activities (i.e. volunteering), typically live longer.  This is a little different from the continuity theory because the activity theory is more about being intentionally active in the late adulthood; whereas, the continuity theory is more about past experiences.  Both of these theories could be valid in helping with the study of late adulthood.

Ashford, J. B., Lecroy, C. W., (2013).  Human behavior in the Social Environment, A Multidimensional Perspective.  Cengage Learning. 
   
 

Blog Two: Late Adulthood

Late adulthood is a challenging time for most humans because it is the eighth life stage and is known as the integrity versus despair time in life. The age range in late adulthood is 60 and beyond and is usually a difficult stage because people tend to become “more reflective and introspective” (Ashford, J., & LeCroy, C. 2013). as they change. There are different types of theories that focus on the aging population. One such theory is activity theory by Robert Havighurst. Activity theory suggests that older people could experience a greater well-being by continuing to remain active in many roles. According to this theory, aging successfully depends upon elderly individuals adapting through substation for roles that may no longer be available to them. If aging individuals are happy with their past and their present, they are more likely to continue aging successfully (Williams, R. 2008.); enhancing their quality of life. This theory can aid social workers in finding appropriate resources and outlets for clients in the eighth life stage.             

Another theory is disengagement theory by Elaine Cumming and William Earl Henry. Disengagement theory states that there is a process between an individual and society as late adulthood occurs that involves mutual withdrawal (Ashford, J., & LeCroy, C. 2013). It states that aging is inevitable and that it is only natural that individuals in late adulthood begin to retreat from society, family, and friends. It can be a useful theory for social workers to apply to clients experiencing late adulthood. It can serve as an inside look to what the client may be dealing with in regards to their stage in life.
           

References
Ashford, J., & LeCroy, C. (2013). Human behavior in the social environment: A multidimensional perspective (5th ed.). Australia: Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning.
 
Williams, R. (2008). Successful Aging. In Process of aging: Social and psychological     perspectives (pp. 299-300). Somerset, New Jersey: Aldine Transaction ;.

Late Adulthood Blog 2

          In the following paragraphs the learner will take a look at the theories of Psychodynamic and Psychosocial Development in reference to Developmental Themes in Chapter 6 “Infancy”. The learner will consider who developed the theories, what the theories attempt to provide and the facts concerning the individual theories. Lastly, the learner will then provide some personal perception on how the theories might be used.

            Psychodynamic Theory was developed by Freud and it attempts to explain personalities in terms of consciousness and unconscious forces. This theory looks at how inner energies and external forces interact to impact emotional development.  This theory can be recognized in the part of this chapter that states “…babies are highly sensitive creatures whose experiences in early infancy affect personality and other characteristics for the rest of life” (Ashford & LeCroy, 2013, p. 245). The theory of Psychosocial Development was developed by Erikson and it is used to explain how internal and external forces shape life development by stages. This theory can be seen in the statement “Infants must receive appropriate and consistent care in order to develop a sense of security.” (Ashford & LeCroy, 2013, p. 245).

In comparing the two theories it would seem to this learner that both believe that there are internal and external forces working together to shape human development overall.  In contrast the two theories are saying that while psychosocial theory believe that these forces work throughout the lifetime of the individual, the psychodynamic theory believes that the development process is confined to the early development years. (Ashford & LeCroy, 2013, p. 98).

While both theories play an important role in social work services today, it is important to be able to use the correct theory at the proper time when needed.  Personally, the learner believes that using a combination of both theories to help in assessing a client would be beneficial. The learner believe that everyone experiences things differently and considering what happens throughout the client’s life is important and what happened during the early years may be the best place to begin therapy.

Reference

Ashford, J. B. & LeCroy, C. W. (2013). Human behavior in the social environment: A multidimensional perspective, (5^th ed.).

Blog 1- Infancy

This blog will look at the differences in two different theories. The two theories the learner will learn about is Erik Erikson theory of infancy and  Piaget’s theories of cognitive development .

Erik Eriksons theory of infancy says " infancy is the stage of trust vs. mistrust" (Ashford, J.B., Lecroy, C.W., 2013). Infants have to depend on their caregivers solely on their survival and needs. This will give the infants a sense of security. "Infnats whose needs are met consistently in a warm and nurturing manner learn that the world is a safe place and that people are dependable" (Ashford, J.B., Lecroy, C.W., 2013). Infants who get this care learns to trust and gives the infants positive emotional bonds. "Babies who are neglected, rejected, and inconsistently cared for learn to be suspicious and fearful of the world around them" (Ashford, J.B., Lecroy, C.W., 2013). When infnats go thru that, develop mistrust. this can "prevent or delay cognitive development and hinder movement into other stages" (Ashford, J.B., Lecroy, C.W., 2013).

Piagets theory says the stage of infants for the age 0-2 years is called sensorimotor stage. He says this stage infants learn by trial and error. His theory is divided into six different stages, Reflex activity, Primary circular reactions, Secondary circular reactions, Coordination of secondary schemes, Tertiary circular reactions and beginning of representational thought. "During this stage, the infant goes from having mostly random reflex actions to displaying goal-directed behavior" (Ashford, J.B., Lecroy, C.W., 2013). "Goal-directed behavior, then, means putting together a series of actions to achieve a desired result"   (Ashford, J.B., Lecroy, C.W., 2013).

Social workers can use both theories when assesing infants, both have very different looks at the infant stage and how they learn.


References:
Ashford, J.B., LeCroy, C.W., (2013) Human Behavior in the Social Environment: A Multidimensional Perspective, 5th ed.

Theoretical Blog 1 - Infancy

          In the following paragraphs the learner will take a look at the theories of Psychodynamic and Psychosocial Development in reference to Developmental Themes in Chapter 6 “Infancy”. The learner will consider who developed the theories, what the theories attempt to provide and the facts concerning the individual theories. Lastly, the learner will then provide some personal perception on how the theories might be used.

            Psychodynamic Theory was developed by Freud and it attempts to explain personalities in terms of consciousness and unconscious forces. This theory looks at how inner energies and external forces interact to impact emotional development.  This theory can be recognized in the part of this chapter that states “…babies are highly sensitive creatures whose experiences in early infancy affect personality and other characteristics for the rest of life” (Ashford & LeCroy, 2013, p. 245). The theory of Psychosocial Development was developed by Erikson and it is used to explain how internal and external forces shape life development by stages. This theory can be seen in the statement “Infants must receive appropriate and consistent care in order to develop a sense of security.” (Ashford & LeCroy, 2013, p. 245).

In comparing the two theories it would seem to this learner that both believe that there are internal and external forces working together to shape human development overall.  In contrast the two theories are saying that while psychosocial theory believe that these forces work throughout the lifetime of the individual, the psychodynamic theory believes that the development process is confined to the early development years. (Ashford & LeCroy, 2013, p. 98).

While both theories play an important role in social work services today, it is important to be able to use the correct theory at the proper time when needed.  Personally, the learner believes that using a combination of both theories to help in assessing a client would be beneficial. The learner believe that everyone experiences things differently and considering what happens throughout the client’s life is important and what happened during the early years may be the best place to begin therapy.

Reference

Ashford, J. B. & LeCroy, C. W. (2013). Human behavior in the social environment: A multidimensional perspective, (5^th ed.).

Infant Attachment

John Bowlby’s (1958) attachment theory has a biological, evolutionary basis (Ashford & Lecroy, 2013). During this stage a baby forms a close relationship with a caregiver to ensure its survival (Ashford & Lecroy, 2013). In relation to evolution, an infant looks to the caregiver for protection such as a young animal looks for protection from a predator.  According to Bowlby’s theory, infants and parents may be biologically programmed to form an attachment (Ashford & Lecroy, 2013). There are four phases in Bowlby’s attachment theory. Each phase describes the behavior of the infant from birth to their second year of life. ​

Infants also thrive well when there is a “good enough” attachment with the mother. It has been proven that pre-term infants often times have issues with attachment. “Pre-term infants can be less engaged with their mothers and receive less enjoyment in mother-involved play activities” (Field, 1983). Spending a great deal of time in the neonatal intensive care unit may be a contributing factor to an attachment as well. A child’s attachment with their parents and caregivers has a long lasting effect. It has been proven that children with healthy attachments have higher result in better self-knowledge and school performance. “According to Mary Ainsworth and her colleagues (1978), the infant uses the primary caregiver as a secure base, leaving him or her to explore the environment and then returning for comfort and security” (Ashford & Lecroy, 2013). Ainsworth has identified three levels attachment which include: secure attachment, anxious attachment and avoidant attachment. Within the identification of the levels, Ainsworth states that attachment refers to the affectional bonds that infants form with their caregivers and that endure across time and situations. Both theories explain the importance of healthy attachments in infants. In order for an infant to thrive they must have developed these bonds early on in their stages of development.

Ashford, J. B., Lecroy, C. W. (2013) Human Behavior in the Social Environment. Belmont, CA: Cengage

Seifer, R., & Schiller, M. (1995). The Role of Parenting Sensitivity, Infant Temperament, and Dyadic Interaction in Attachment Theory and Assessment. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, (2/3). 146

By nature babies yearn to loved and nurtured.  Through recent founding parenthood was misrepresented by this.  A crying baby was seen as spoiled and needed to be taught better.  This idea was very far from the truth.  Crying is one of the sole ways in which babies communicate.  This myth that earlier parents had led to a generation of people that are unable to communicate effectively.  Babies were also thought of as an empty shell.  But, this is not the case at all.  Babies have real feelings and diverse personalities.  The primal interaction amongst the infant will be the driving force that dictates their place in life.  Characteristics are developed from the womb.  Babies mimic and behave by the design of their caregivers (Ashford & Lecroy, 2012).

            Environments that are positive and non-aggressive help the child to exhibit socially acceptable behavior in the present and the future.  Creating an atmosphere of love helps the infant to adapt love into their own existence.  On the other hand, examples of aggressive and volatile behavior will be reproduced, as well.  The infant will define their behavior by the behavior of those that are caring for them.  Through the social learning theory behavior is modeled for the infant.  The infant then replicates the interactions that were interpreted.  Family structure plays the vital role in determining the destination of the growing infant; mentally, physically, and spiritually.  Education of healthy avenues that the caregivers can take is advised.  Although, small in the learning stage, infants are out future (Chavis, 2012).  Word Count 253

 

Chavis, A. M. (2012). Social Learning Theory and Behavioral Therapy: Considering Human

Behaviors within the Social and Cultural Context of Individuals and Families. Journal Of Human Behavior In The Social Environment, 22(1), 54-64. doi:10.1080/10911359.2011.598828.

 

Ashford, J.B., Leroy, C.W., & Asford, C. J.D.  (2012).  Brooks/Cole Empowerment Series:  Human

Behavior in the Social Environment.  Brooks/Cole Publishing Company.

                                                                                                                        

Theories of Attitudes and Emotions

          Blog 1

Theoretical Blog Attitudes and Emotions 

Attitude is defined as “a learned evaluative response directed at specific objects which is relatively enduring, influences and motivates behavior” (Lippa, 1994,p.214). As children make transition from Infancy to middle childhood, attitudes and emotions have a tremendous impact on their development and social interaction.  Based on Erikson’s theory, this period is characterized as “industry versus inferiority”. Attitudes and emotions are central to children in early childhood, as they are still learning about how their emotions impact others and the importance of emotional regulation” (Ashford & Lecroy,2013). Worth mentioning is the idea that successful adaptation as well as greater interactions with peers is a major developmental task for this age.  There are three important components involved with understanding emotions and attitudes. These include; experiencing emotions, expressing emotions and understanding emotions (Ashford and Lecroy, 2013, p.380-381). An essential aspect of understanding emotional competence is to be able to recognize that one is experiencing an emotion. Emotionally competent children are able to express their emotions in a manner that is socially appropriate.

 On the other hand, emotions are a mental reaction, subjectively experienced as strong feelings usually directed towards a specific object. Also emotion is typically accompanied by physiological and behavioral changes in the body (Ashford et al, 2010). Major theories of emotion can be classified under three main categories; physiological, neurological and cognitive (Ashford et al, 2010). Parents and care givers are obliged to understand the basics of these principles in order to help children control their emotions. A very significant research in children and emotions established a process called “Emotion Coaching” a process whereby care givers of children help children to identify emotions as well as how to react towards the emotion identified.

The theory of attitude and emotions differ in many ways. Attitudes are directed at a specific target or object, but emotions are not. Attitudes tend to be enduring but emotions come and go in a matter of seconds. It is very essential that at an early stage children should be able to recognize and differentiate these feelings. Also, successful adaptation as well as greater interactions with peers a major developmental task for this age will also go a long way to emotionally competent children.

Reference
Ashford, J.B., Lecroy, C. W. (2013).  Human Behavior in the Social Environment, A Multidimensional Perspective, 5th ed.  Cengage Learning.

Theoretical Blog 1

Theoretical Blog1

In contrast to Piaget Theory and Erik Erikson’s Theory was based on the belief that personality develops in a series of stages.  Erikson’s Theory described how social environment played a key role in children’s development or lack thereof.  According to Erikson, ego identity is the conscious sense of self developed from social interaction.  As we enter each stage there is a new challenge that either helps or hinders development.  The first stage, Trust v Mistrust, occurs from birth to one year of age.  If a child successfully develops trust with parent or caregiver then he/she will feel a sense of comfort and security in their world.  On the other end of the spectrum, if a child has an inconsistency from parent or caregiver, the child will feel they cannot trust adults.  In the second stage, Autonomy v Shame and Doubt, which occurs in early adolescence a child, develops a great sense of independence.  A child in this stage begins exploring their independence and if parents allow children to exercise their decision making then a sense of autonomy is established.  Stage 3 is the Initiative v Guilt which occurs in preschool years.  Children who excel in this stage feel capable to lead others.  Those who fail in this stage lack initiative and have self doubt.  Stage 4 is Industry v Inferiority occurs from ages 5 to 11.  Through social interactions children will develop sense of pride and are highly confident.  Those who do not excel in this stage feel a sense of discouragement and little belief in their skills and abilities.  Stage 5 is Identity v Confusion is during adolescence.  Completing this stage successfully will lead to fidelity and the ability to live up to society’s expectations.  In Stage 6, Intimacy v Isolation, which occurs in adulthood during exploration of personal relationships.  Those lacking in this stage often experience emotional isolation and failed relationships.  Stage 7 Generativity v Stagnation occurs during adulthood where continuing to focus on career and family.  Those failing in this stage will be unproductive and feel unaccomplished in careers and family.  Stage 8 Integrity v Despair occurs during old age is a complete reflection back on life itself.  Successfully completing this phase means as one looks back on life there are few regrets and a feeling of satisfaction (Cherry, K. A. (2005).

According to (Ashford, Lecroy, 2013, p.309) Piaget’s preoperational stage has laid out an important foundation for understanding what children know (Piaget, 1967).  Piaget labeled early childhood years ages 2 to about 7, the “preoperational stage” of cognitive development.  Piaget says children in the preoperational stage cannot perform certain mental tasks like older children.  During the preschool years, mental reasoning, stable concepts, egocentrism, and magical beliefs emerge in children thoughts as they transition from a simple use of symbols to more complicated use.  Piaget talks about two sub-stages of preoperational thoughts which are symbolic function and intuitive thoughts.  Children between the ages of 2 to 4 show characteristics of the symbolic function sub-stage because they represent object mentality that are not present in their immediate environment (Ashford, Lecroy, 2013, p. 309).  As stated in (Marti, 203), at this stage children can draw scribbles that represent an object or person and play pretend games along with other children,  they also have imaginary friend that does not exist.  In the symbolic function stage children play “house” or “school”.  They engage in recreation roles as the father, mother, student and teacher because they can envision and share complex thoughts and ideas while they play.  Piaget’s theory states egocentrism is another characteristic of symbolic function sub-stage as egocentric children cannot distinguish between their own perspective and another person’s (Ashford, Lecroy, 2013, p. 309).  Piaget’s second sub-stage of the preoperational stage, intuitive thought, develops between the ages of 4 and 7.  Children in this sub-stage employ primordial reasoning, but not formal logic.  At this stage children ask questions like “why” and “how about” everything (Ashford, Lecroy, 2013, p. 309).  Piaget’s additional critiques focus on the applicability of his work to radical and ethnic groups and low income children. 

References:

 Erikson's stages of psychosocial development. Retrieved from http://psychology.about.com/od/psychosocialtheories/a/psychosocial.htm of identity). 

 Ashford, J., & LeCroy, C. (2013). Human behavior in the social environment: A multidimensional perspective (5th ed.). Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole/Thomson Learning

Reference:

 Ashford, J., & LeCroy, C. (2013). Human behavior in the social environment: A multidimensional perspective (5th ed.). Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole/Thomson Learning.

 

Reference:

 Ashford, J., & LeCroy, C. (2013). Human behavior in the social environment: A multidimensional perspective (5th ed.). Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole/Thomson Learning.

 

 

 

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